Introduction
The colloquial knowledge about food and nutrition is as old as humanity. With the passage of time, scientific research has emphasized the importance of nutrients for disease prevention and cure. The ground breaking discovery of vitamins more than a century ago, has provided new insights about the perception of health and disease. Vitamins are regarded as organic compounds that are required by the body in small amounts for normal functioning. Hence, they are called as micronutrients. They need to be supplied through the diet, although it is said that selected vitamins are produced by the body in certain amounts.
Vitamins can be classified as fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins depending upon their affinity to dissolve in either fat or water. The fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with the dietary fats and are stored in the fatty tissues and liver. The vitamins A, D, E and K belong to this group. Contrary to this, water-soluble vitamins are not readily stored in the body though they are carried to different tissues of the body. The B complex group of vitamins namely thiamine (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B 2), niacin (vitamin B3), pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), pyridoxine (vitamin B6), biotin (vitamin B7), folate or folic acid (vitamin B9), cobalamin (vitamin B12) and vitamin C belong to this group.
Each of the above-mentioned vitamins display uniqueness with respect to the dietary source and bodily functions. Scientific studies have not only acknowledged the specific diseases caused by the deficiency of these vitamins, but have linked the lack of some vitamins (especially fat-soluble vitamins) to increased risk of cancer, type 2 diabetes, heart disease and stroke.
A word about vitamin K
Vitamin K has a long-established association with blood coagulation or clotting since its discovery in the 1930s. Since much emphasis was laid on its ability to assist in blood clotting, an essential factor to prevent bleeding, it was named after the German word ‘koagulation’. In the later years, scientific research has uncovered other functions related to this vitamin. These include maintaining bone health, heart health, anti-cancer effects, preventing vascular calcification (abnormal deposition of minerals in the walls of the blood vessels) and enhancing insulin sensitivity (a measure of how well the body cells utilize the hormone insulin in order to maintain normal blood glucose levels). The identification of the forms of vitamin k has further thrown light on their varying functions and kinetics.
Forms of vitamin K
Vitamin k has been identified as a group of compounds that share a common chemical structure. The natural vitamin k occurs in two forms; vitamin k1, also called as phylloquinone and vitamin k2, named as menaquinones. While these two forms share a common pattern of small intestinal absorption from the dietary sources, they differ in the type of tissue distribution and the length of the time they remain in the circulation. It is said that vitamin k1 is mostly stored in the liver and stays for lesser time in the circulation. On the contrary, vitamin k2 not only has an expanded tissue distribution such as heart and bones, but also remains for much longer in the circulation.
Vitamin k1
This is the most dominant form of naturally occurring vitamin K. The dietary sources include green cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage and kale. Green leafy vegetables such as spinach, chard, parsley and lettuce contain significant amounts of vitamin k1. Some fruits like avocado, kiwi, plums and grapes (red and green) also contain vitamin k1. Among the above-mentioned sources, kale and spinach are considered to be the richest sources of vitamin k1. In addition to this, some of the wild edible plants like stinging nettles, wild garlic, dandelion leaves, edible herbs such as marjoram, mint and savoury are considered to be rich in vitamin k1. Also, vegetable oils such as soybean oil, rapeseed oil and olive oil contain good amounts of vitamin k1.
Vitamin k2
This consists of a group of compounds having the common name menaquinones. They are also designated as MK-n. These are numbered from MK-2 to MK-15 based on the length of the molecules that make up these compounds. In this series, MK-4, MK-7 and MK-9 have been the most investigated with MK-4 dominating the picture. It has been said that MK-4 scores high in terms of its effects on the body whereas MK-7 in terms of its availability to the tissues.
The sources of vitamin k2 could be non-dietary or dietary. Talking about the non-dietary source, it is said that bacteria are the major contributors. The bacteria in question could be those present in the gut or in food. Though the gut bacteria are able to produce ample amounts of vitamin k2, their availability to the body is poor. This makes diet as one of the key sources of vitamin k2.
It is a well-known fact that starter cultures are widely used for fermenting the foods hence making them a good source of the vitamin. The traditional fermented Japanese food called ‘natto’ which is made from fermented soybeans secures the top spot in terms of vitamin k2 concentration. Another notable source is ‘sauerkraut’ a dish prepared from fermenting cabbage. Dairy products are considered to be the second richest source. It is said that hard cheese (gouda) contains significant amounts of vitamin k2. Also, ‘kefir’, a fermented milk drink is considered a good source. Apart from these, chicken (liver and breast), meat, egg yolk, salmon and beef contain vitamin k2.
More on vitamin k2
Scientific evidence has put forth the multifaceted role of vitamin k2 in regulating the functions of various organs and organ systems. The findings from a number of scientific studies have unearthed the crucial role played by this vitamin in maintaining the overall health and well-being. The functions of vitamin k2 are elucidated below
Heart health
A healthy heart is critical to sustain one’s life as it provides the oxygen rich blood for efficient functioning of all the organs and organ systems.
Cardiovascular or heart diseases are one of the leading causes of death and disability on a global scale. Literally meaning diseases pertaining to the heart and the blood vessels, they include coronary artery disease (CAD- the blood vessels supplying the heart called coronary arteries are affected leading to heart attacks, angina and heart failure), cerebrovascular disease (a condition affecting the blood vessels of the brain resulting in stroke), peripheral artery disease (PAD- a condition affecting the blood vessels of the limbs most commonly the lower limbs resulting in pain, numbness, weakness and open sores), aortic atherosclerosis ( a condition involving aorta, a major blood vessel that carries oxygen rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body, manifesting as heart attack, stroke and deprivation of the blood supply to major organs resulting in medical emergency).
One of the crucial factors that determines the development of heart diseases is the deposition of the so-called atherosclerotic plaques inside the blood vessels. These plaques that are mainly composed of fats continuously get deposited on the inside of the blood vessels leading to blockage and even rupture.
It is a well-known fact that the mineral calcium takes the top spot for its ample presence in the body, and is mainly concentrated in the bones and teeth. The notion that the calcium deposition in the arteries is related to aging is now being increasingly linked to heart diseases. It is said that the calcium deposits in the arteries are seen in the early stages of atherosclerosis, and the amount of calcium directly correlates to the risk of developing heart disease.
So, coming back to vitamin k2, it has been ascertained that this vitamin triggers special proteins called vitamin k dependent proteins (VKDP) that are present in the bone, heart and blood vessels. Till now 14 of them have been identified. These proteins perform a range of functions like aiding blood clotting, protection of blood vessels and strengthening of bones by bringing in more calcium. As far as the blood vessels are concerned, a specific type of VKDP called Matrix Gla Protein (MGP) offers protection by preventing the deposition of calcium, an important strategy to guard against atherosclerosis. This protein also has the potential to revert the deposited calcium in the blood vessels. These findings hold true for both normal and unhealthy individuals.
A number of studies have also acknowledged significant reduction in the risk of developing heart disease in addition to improvement in the elasticity of the blood vessels, a determinant of heart health. In addition to this, significant reductions in the death rate due to heart disease was also observed. However, these findings have been linked exclusively to K2 and not K1.
Vitamin k2 also has been said to protect the valves present in the heart against deposition of calcium.
Bone health
Bone is a hard tissue that forms a part of the skeletal frame. The skeletal system is considered as one of the biggest organ systems of the body contributing to about 15% of the body weight. The skeletal framework is an assembly of bones that differ in their appearance and function. Bone is considered as a highly specialised connective tissue necessary for maintaining the body structure, movement and protecting the internal organs. It is also a storehouse of minerals like calcium and phosphate. They not only make the bone strong, but also contribute to normal functioning of the organ systems. The bone cavity is filled with a soft and spongy tissue called the bone marrow which produces blood cells.
Contrary to the assumption that bone is a static structure, it is interesting to know that it continuously undergoes changes throughout the life span of an individual. Also called as bone remodeling, these changes involve a continuous and balanced cycle of resorption and replacement. In simple words, the old or the damaged bone tissue undergoes dissolution to be substituted by a new bone tissue. These changes are brought about by a team of specialised cells called osteoclasts, osteoblasts and osteocytes. This remodeling is not only essential to maintain the skeletal structure and integrity, but also to maintain the mineral balance in the body. Any imbalance in this process leads to a number of bone diseases.
The scientific research about maintaining strong bones in order to prevent the changes related to age or any disease process has provided new insights regarding the importance of bone health. While it has been increasingly emphasized that physical activity, calcium and vitamin D are essential for strong bones, recent studies have supported the beneficial role of vitamin k2 in maintaining the bone health.
Some of the ways by which vitamin k2 contributes to bone health are
* Enhances bone strength and density. The term bone density refers to the amount of minerals present in the bone.
* Enhances the mineral content of the bone.
* Prevents bone resorption: Enhanced bone resorption (dissolution) is considered as a part of aging leading to weak bones and increased risk of fractures. Vitamin k2 enhances bone formation and reduces resorption of the bone.
* Reduces the risk of fractures: A number of studies conducted on groups of individuals above the age of 50 have produced convincing results with regards to the fracture risk reduction. On the other hand, the notion that children are born with vitamin k2 deficiency and failure to correct this could affect the bone growth and development has been put forth. In addition to this, vitamin k2 has been shown to significantly reduce the risk of osteoporotic fractures when given along with calcium and vitamin D. However more confirmation is needed regarding this.
* Reduces calcium loss in urine: Increased loss of calcium through urine also called as hypercalciuria has been recognised as one of the risk factors for the development of kidney stones and the loss of bone quality.
* Reduces alkaline phosphate levels in the blood: Alkaline phosphatase is an enzyme that is predominantly present in liver and the bones and is essential for the normal metabolic functioning of these organ systems. In relation to the skeletal system, they play a role in the normal mineralization. Increased levels in the blood are seen in liver and bone disorders. Reduction in the blood levels corelate with enhanced bone health.
* Activates the vitamin k dependent proteins (VKDP): Vitamin k2 is known for activating the VKDP’s called osteocalcin and Matrix Gla Protein (MGP). The activation of these proteins enhances the calcium deposition thus making the bones strong.
Diabetes risk
Diabetes is a chronic (long-standing) disorder wherein the blood sugar levels are above the normal range. The increased blood glucose levels are due to their defective processing in the body caused either due to the insufficient production or inadequate action (insulin resistance) of the hormone insulin. Persistently elevated blood glucose levels affect the functioning of organ systems leading to complications that either reduce the life span or affect the quality of life. Despite significant advances in the diagnostic and treatment modalities, diabetes continues to be a public health burden on a global scale.
The role of vitamin k2 in reducing the risk of developing type 2 diabetes has been explored in recent studies. Studies have put forth that taking vitamin k2 on a long-term basis could reduce the risk of developing diabetes. Improvement in the action of insulin as well as reductions in the fasting blood glucose and HbA1c levels were observed. Though the exact way by which vitamin k2 exerts these actions are still being analysed, emerging data has revealed that these effects are due to the enhanced effect of osteocalcin, a vitamin k2 dependent protein. Laboratory studies have shown that osteocalcin enhances the insulin production by the pancreas by boosting the number of insulin producing beta cells.
The concept of ‘inflammation and diabetes’ has been increasingly acknowledged in a number of studies. The term inflammation is nothing but the way the body responds to an infection or injury by releasing certain chemicals. The presence of insulin resistance is said to bring about an inflammatory state in the body leading to worsening of diabetes in terms of blood sugar levels and the development of complications. Vitamin k2 has been said to reduce insulin resistance, in other words, improve the action of insulin by improving the activity of a specific hormone called adiponectin. As the name suggests, this hormone that is made by the fat cells not only reduces inflammation, but also balances the levels of glucose and fats in the blood bringing about an improved insulin action.
Recent evidence has put forth the role of vitamin k2 in improving the gut health, a factor which has been linked to stabilizing the blood sugar levels.
Anti-cancer properties
Cancer can be defined as a condition in which certain cells of the body grow out of control causing it to spread from one part to another part of the body. The cells in question are called as the ‘transformed’ cells that are different in their appearance, function and genetics. There are more than 200 types of cancer and it can begin in any tissue or organ of the body. Some of the reasons behind the development of cancer include increasing age, genetics, unhealthy lifestyle, obesity, exposure to environmental toxins and infections caused by bacteria or viruses.
Studies have explored the role of vitamin k2 as an add on to the standard cancer treatments. The laboratory studies conducted in relation to this have revealed the effectiveness of vitamin k2 to impede the growth and spread of cancer cells. There are also reports stating reduced risk of cancer development and complete resolution of cancer with vitamin k2 in patients undergoing cancer treatment. However, these findings have been observed in many cancer types rather than a specific cancer.
Though there has been varied opinions about the action of vitamin k2 in different types of cancer, studies have reported the potential of vitamin k2 to prevent the growth of ovarian cancer, leukaemia (blood cancer), bladder and liver cancer by a process called apoptosis. This is nothing but a type of planned cell death in order to remove the unwanted cells from the body. In addition to these findings, laboratory studies have shown the potential of vitamin k2 to prevent the growth of lung and pancreatic cancer cells. Also, reduced risk for developing advanced prostate cancer has been observed in patients.
Anti-arthritic properties
The term arthritis refers to disease involving the joints. A more precise meaning would be inflammation of the joints giving rise to symptoms including pain, stiffness, reduced movement and joint deformities. There are many types of arthritis among which osteoarthritis is very common. The joints that are frequently affected here are knees, hips and hands. Rheumatoid arthritis is another type of arthritis wherein the immune system of the body attacks the joints causing pain and disability. Though not as common as osteoarthritis, it is said to involve the small joints of the hands and feet.
On a general note, the role of vitamin k in offering protection against the development of severe osteoarthritis has been put forth by recent studies. It has been proposed that vitamin k activates the Matrix Gla Protein (MGP), a vitamin k dependent protein thus preventing the deposition of calcium in the joint cartilages, a typical feature of osteoarthritis. In addition to this, studies have supported the positive effect of vitamin k2 in alleviating the joint inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis. Vitamin k2 also has been said to bring about programmed or planned cell death of abnormal cells in the joints. A considerable reduction in the overall severity was observed after three months in patients who were given vitamin k2. Hence vitamin k and its forms might prove to be potential add On to the conventional arthritis treatment.
Kidney protection
The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped organs that are located on either side of the abdomen just below the rib cage. Their function is to remove the waste from the body, in addition to stabilizing the level of water, salts and minerals in the blood. The kidney also produces hormones that help in maintaining the blood pressure, calcium levels in the blood as well as produce the red blood cells. Each kidney is composed of millions of filtration units which are specialised in selectively removing the waste and returning the required substances to the body.
The term chronic kidney disease refers to the gradual decline in kidney function that has been present for more than three months. The most common causes are diabetes and high blood pressure though kidney failure can also occur as a result of infections and inflammation of the kidneys, hereditary disorders affecting the kidneys and environmental exposure to air pollutants, pesticides etc. Evidence has pointed to the existence of vitamin k2 deficiency in patients with kidney failure putting them at increased risk of heart disease and bone weakness.
Studies have explored the role of vitamin k2 in patients with kidney failure. It is a well-known fact that a normal blood flow to the kidneys ensures its efficient functioning. The renal artery which supplies the kidneys divides into numerous branches till it gets to the smallest size to supply the filtration units. In kidney failure, the blood flow gets affected as a result of narrowing of the arteries. The deposition of calcium and atherosclerotic plaques applies to renal arteries as well as much as it applies to the heart. Now, coming to the evidence behind vitamin k2, it has been revealed that administration of vitamin k2 supplements in patients with kidney failure brings about an improvement in kidney function. This is because of the improved blood flow caused by this vitamin down to the filtration unit and keeping the renal arteries free of calcium deposits.
Though this effect of vitamin k2 looks promising, and vitamin k2 administration is regarded as safe in patients with kidney failure, more convincing evidence is needed to ascertain the specific benefits of vitamin k2 in these individuals.
Liver protection
The liver is one of the largest organs that carries out many vital functions in the body. It helps in digestion, processing of food, maintaining immunity, detoxification (removal of waste), storage of vitamins, glycogen (a form of glucose which acts as a quick source of energy when the body needs) and minerals. The liver also produces bile which helps in the digestion of fats as well as key proteins that help in blood clotting.
The studies conducted on the effect of vitamin k2 on the liver have increasingly emphasized its healing potential on the liver cells. It is a well-known fact that any damage to the liver results in the formation of the scar tissue which is permanent. Also called liver cirrhosis, this occurs as a result of infections (hepatitis C and B), alcohol consumption, fatty liver, genetic conditions and certain medications causing liver damage. Vitamin k2 has been shown to promote the regeneration of the damaged cells in liver cirrhosis. However, further studies are needed to fully ascertain these effects.
The term non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) refers to a condition caused by the accumulation of excessive fat in the liver. The cause for this is not attributed to alcohol, but rather occurs in individuals with obesity, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure and cholesterol as well as the presence of insulin resistance (reduced action of insulin). Preliminary reports from recent studies have revealed the potential of vitamin k2 in protecting against the development of NAFLD. This effect has been related to the ability of vitamin k2 in reducing the body fat as well as the excessive liver fat. Also, the abnormal changes in the liver caused by fat deposition showed regression.
This potential of vitamin k2 could prove to be a strategy for the prevention or delaying the advancement of fatty liver.
Role in obesity
The build up of abnormal amounts of fat in the body leading to health problems is called obesity. Its presence is calculated clinically by using an entity called body mass index. Also referred to as BMI in its short form, the standard formula that is followed for calculation is weight in kilograms divided by height squared in meters. Higher numbers are said to indicate the presence of excess fat. The presence of obesity increases the risk for the development of type 2 diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure and high cholesterol. The increasing incidence of obesity worldwide is related to physical inactivity, unhealthy eating, lack of sleep, medications and genetics.
As already mentioned, the hormone adiponectin produced by the fat cells helps to maintain a healthy glucose and fat levels in the blood. People who are obese have low levels of this hormone thus making them vulnerable for health risks. One of the ways to increase the adiponectin level is physical exercise. Studies have also proposed a connection between osteocalcin (a vitamin k dependent protein) and adiponectin. In other words, sufficient amount of vitamin k2 activates osteocalcin ensuring adequate levels of adiponectin. Emerging reports from human studies supplemented with vitamin k2 have revealed reductions in the body weight and abdominal fat. However, more studies are needed to ascertain this.
Lung protection
Lungs are the principal organs of the respiratory system that sustain life by taking part in the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbondioxide) between the environment and the blood stream. There are two lungs, right and left located on either side of the chest cavity. The trachea, also called as windpipe, connects the throat to the lungs. It divides into two major branches called bronchi that run into each lung. The division is a continuous process with the smallest branch ending up in a sac like structure called alveoli. It is here the gas exchange takes place. The bronchial tubes are lined by a special type of cells having slender hair like structures called cilia. A sticky liquid called mucus also lines the airways. The continuous sweeping movement of these hairs brings out the unwanted inhaled particles such as dust and germs along with the mucus which is either coughed, sneezed or swallowed.
The term acute lung injury is used to describe the abnormalities caused in the lung structure and function leading to severe oxygen deficiency and breathing difficulties. A number of factors such as chest injury, exposure to toxic chemical fumes and gases, infections in the lungs (including covid-19) or other organs, aspiration, drowning, smoking and alcohol intake can lead to this condition.
A growing number of studies have emphasized the importance of vitamin k in maintaining the lung health. One of the population-based studies reported below average lung function in individuals who were deficient in vitamin k as indicated by spirometry readings (this is a type of test that is used to evaluate the lung function by measuring the movement of air in and out of the lungs. A device called spirometer is used for this purpose). It was also observed that vitamin k deficiency was associated with increased risk of asthma and wheezing.
It is a well-known fact that the toxins released by the harmful bacteria when they attack our bodies severely affect the lungs. One such toxin is called lipopolysaccharide that is released by a specific group of harmful bacteria called gram negative bacteria. Recent studies have reported the potential of vitamin k2 in protecting the lungs against such injuries. Also, studies conducted in COVID-19 patients have revealed that low levels of vitamin k2 are associated with increased risk of complications. Though these findings give a clue regarding the potential of vitamin k2 in protecting the lungs, more studies are needed to ascertain the same. As far as the COVID is concerned, it has been proposed that giving vitamin k2 or vitamin k supplements should be a part of COVID treatment. However, this vitamin could prove to be a useful treatment strategy in future protecting the lungs against damage.
Brain and Nervous system health
The brain is regarded as one of the composite organs of the body made up of billions of nerve cells called neurons that are capable of processing information. It commands all the processes and tasks that are vital for the normal functioning of the body. It is divided into three parts namely cerebrum, cerebellum and the brain stem with each of them coordinating different sets of functions. The brain stem continues as spinal cord from which a number of nerves branch out supplying the organs and organ systems. These act as messengers conveying the information from the brain. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system whereas the nerves emerging from the spinal cord and their numerous branches make up the peripheral nervous system.
The term brain health refers to the normal functioning of the brain for the given age in the absence of diseases affecting the brain. It is said that the brain has three categories of functions that influence our daily lives. These are perception of senses and movement, cognition (the process of thinking, understanding and gaining knowledge) and emotions, self and social behavior. Brain health is affected by a number of factors such as brain injuries, infections, tumors, damage to the nerve cells (Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s dementia), psychological disorders (depression, schizophrenia, alcohol and drug abuse etc.), migraine and sleep disorders.
It is a well-known fact that the brain undergoes aging in the life span of an individual. This is associated with changes in its structure and function. On one end of the horizon, there are elderly people who are intellectually sharp for their age, whereas on the other end age-related brain disorders are seen. Many factors such as unhealthy eating habits, physical inactivity, sleep disorders, risk of heart disease and the presence of inflammation could affect the brain health. It is said that correcting these at an early stage could promote healthy aging of the brain.
Many studies have supported the role of healthy diet for optimal brain health. Amongst the various vitamins, minerals, fatty acids and various dietary types, the role of vitamin k2 in protecting the brain has been explored in recent studies. The potential role of vitamin k2 in the evolution of healthy brain cells as well as its protective effect have been put forth. Its beneficial effects in certain neurological disorders have also been proposed.
Multiple sclerosis is a condition wherein the body’s own immune system attacks the central nervous system resulting in inflammation and loss of protective covering on the nerves of the brain and spinal cord giving rise to neurological symptoms like blurring or loss of vision, numbness, weakness, loss of bowel and bladder functions and cognition. One of the studies conducted on individuals with multiple sclerosis has revealed a more extensive neurological damage in those who had low levels of vitamin k2.
Parkinson’s disease is a nervous system disorder which occurs as a result of damage to the specific nerves in the brain which produce a chemical called dopamine. The nerves that produce this chemical are important for the normal movement of the body. This is mostly seen in individuals over the age of 60 and presents with abnormalities in the movement which gets worse over time. One of the main reasons for the development of movement disorder is due to the accumulation of abnormal proteins in the cells that produce this chemical.
Emerging reports from the recent studies have proposed an existing relationship between vitamin k2 levels and the development and progression of Parkinson’s disease. Also, vitamin k2 has been said bring about alterations in the genes of the brain cells related to the development of hereditary Parkinson’s disease.
Alzheimer’s disease is one of the most common types of neurological disorders seen in individuals over the age of 65 years. A number of mental abilities such as memory, understanding, language, reasoning and judgement are affected that worsen as the disease progresses. Recent studies have supported the role of vitamin k2 in preventing as well as controlling the advancement of Alzheimer’s.
It is a well-known fact that the above-mentioned neurological disorders get worse with the passage of time. Despite scientific advances, these diseases cannot be cured but rather be controlled by medications and psychotherapy. But, vitamin k2 could offer a potential hope in the future years to combat these conditions owing to its protective influence on the brain cells against inflammation, cell damage and death, oxidative stress (increased accumulation of harmful molecules called free radicals that damage the cells) and cognitive function. Specifically, recent research has put forth the promising action of vitamin k2 against microglial activation (type of cells present in the brain that show increased activity in brain damage leading to inflammation) in Alzheimer’s as well as reducing the harmful effects of an abnormal protein called alpha-synuclein in Parkinson’s disease. Similarly, studies have proposed the potential of this vitamin to reduce the progression of symptoms in multiple sclerosis.
Recent scientific research has emphasized the role of vitamin k dependent protein called Protein Gas 6 in influencing the normal functioning of the central as well as the peripheral nervous system.
With regards to the conditions affecting the peripheral nervous system, peripheral neuropathy is a disorder involving the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. The damage to the nerves occurs as a result of the loss of the protective covering of the nerves called the myelin sheath. The most common symptoms include weakness, pain, tingling sensation and numbness. A range of conditions such as type 2 diabetes, excessive alcohol intake, vitamin deficiencies, infections, certain medications, toxic chemicals and injuries lead to this condition.
Studies have attributed the role of vitamin k2 in healing the damaged nerves. The activation of the protein called Protein Gas 6 by vitamin k2 has been said to restore the myelin sheath of the nerves. Also, it has been proposed that vitamin k2 reduces the levels of specific chemicals called cytokines which cause inflammation of the nerves. The alleviation of inflammation also brings relief to the pain seen in neuropathy. This potential of vitamin k2 could prove beneficial in the management of neuropathies.
Excellent article